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Accordingly, it should also be noted that reactions to gender-fair linguistic forms are not equal among individuals. In this study, participants were asked to read job descriptions for various occupations that had been altered to include either masculine or feminine language and estimate the number of women in the position … The concrete-abstract dimension of language has been identified by the linguistic category model (Semin & Fiedler, 1988), which distinguishes between four word categories increasing in their level of abstraction: descriptive action verbs (DAVs: e.g., “to kick,” “to hug”), interpretative action verbs (IAVs: e.g., “to hurt,” “to help”), state verbs (SVs: e.g., “to hate”; “to love”), and adjectives (ADJs: e.g., “aggressive,” “kind”). Certain words have been proven to attract or repel some male and female candidates, according to the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology’s Evidence That Gendered Wording in Job Advertisements Exists and Sustains Gender Inequalityand other studies. [39] In the video, Peterson argued that legal protection of gender pronouns results in "compelled speech", which would violate the right to freedom of expression outlined in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. This is also true for the communal and agentic traits that characterize gender stereotypes. Finally, ambivalent sexism can be alternately hostile or benevolent, depending on the type of women it refers to. To understand how the sex is embedded in the grammatical and syntactical rules of different languages, and therefore the extent to which a language contributes to perpetrate gender bias, Stahlberg, Braun, Irmen, and Sczesny (2007) proposed a distinction between three language types: genderless languages, natural gender languages, and grammatical gender languages. Children perceive typically masculine professions presented with word pairs as less difficult and therefore more accessible, but they also attribute to such professions less salary (Vervecken & Hannover, 2015). Conversely, the lower the marks, the more students were described in abstract negative terms, thus conveying that their negative achievements are due to stable, inner characteristics, and difficult to change. This effect occurred, at least in part, because women anticipated less belongingness in the positions advertised with the masculine-worded descriptions. Therefore, when speakers refer to a person with a generic term, it is assumed to be male unless there is an explicit indication to the contrary (Silveira, 1980). Therefore, attitudes are often less positive toward female than male leaders, and it is more difficult for women to become and succeed as leaders (Eagly & Karau, 2002). Some words can conjure up other words, images, and feelings. Additionally, gender bias still exists – for both speaker and audience – when speakers who may share the same gender as their audience. [2] For example, the words policeman[3][4] and stewardess[5][6] are gender-specific job titles; the corresponding gender-neutral terms are police officer[7][8] and flight attendant. They showed that the content of gender stereotypes is reflected in the content of the language used to describe men and women in both job evaluation (Madera, Hebl, & Martin, 2009; Trix & Psenka, 2003) and job advertisement (Bem & Bem, 1973; Gaucher, Friesen, & Kay, 2011). This effect is probably due to the perceived lower social status of professionals ending in -essa as compared to those ending in -a (e.g., professora), which has been recently introduced as an alternative to the masculine form, especially for higher status positions (Merkel, Maass, & Frommelt, 2012). Content analyses of letters of recommendation for college (LaCroix, 1985) and graduate schools (Watson, 1987) revealed the use of stereotypical gender-related words, which describe female applicants as feminine and male applicants as masculine. In contrast, male applicants, even when rejected, were evaluated with many negative action verbs, which allow negative aspects to be limited to restricted contexts. The less we identify with it, the less we will perform it. However, the first statement, which is more concrete, implicitly suggests that the applicant did not reach the requested standard in a specific area and thus restricts the unfavorable evaluation to a transitory situation or performance that is likely to change in different contexts or for future selection procedures (Semin & Fiedler, 1988). [32] It has become common in some academic and governmental settings to rely on gender-neutral language to convey inclusion of all sexes or genders (gender-inclusive language).[33][34]. This relation is obtained by controlling for other possible explaining factors, such as divergent geographic locations, religious traditions, government systems, or level of development. Results showed that women’s visibility increased for most professions when word pairs were used instead of masculine forms. [31] Both publications were written by American authors, originally without the consideration of the British-English dialect. By choosing terms at different levels of abstraction, people can affect the attributions of the receiver in a way that is consistent with their stereotypical beliefs. Moreover, participants identify more quickly the gender of male or female first names that matches the primes’ gender than when presented with gender-unrelated words (Blair & Banaji, 1996). Moreover, letters of recommendation for male applicants who had been hired at an American medical school contained more outstanding adjectives, such as superb, outstanding, and remarkable, than those for female applicants, even though objective criteria showed no gender differences in qualifications (Trix & Psenka, 2003). In a second study, Madera et al. They often end in -ess, -ette, -ienne or – trix. https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/bias-free-language/gender Another way through which language is used to discriminate women in the job selection process is represented by the words chosen to compose their evaluations. Recently, Hansen, Littwitz, and Sczesny (2016) found that gender-inclusive forms used in news reports enhanced individuals’ own usage of gender-inclusive language and this resulted in more gender-balanced mental representations of the roles described. The answer is twofold. [30] In 1995, the Women’s Press published The A–Z of Non-Sexist Language, by Margaret Doyle. It is a form of unconscious bias, or implicit bias, which occurs when one individual unconsciously attributes certain attitudes and stereotypes to another person or group of people. Hostile sexism encompasses a derogatory depiction of women and negative feelings toward them in order to justify male power, traditional gender roles, and men’s consideration of women as sexual objects. This language, in turn, conveys a representation of women as having less worth than their male colleagues and could damage their future opportunities to enter academia or reach higher positions. Terms in the same category trigger similar cognitive inferences, which in turn exert a systematic influence on non-linguistic behavior (e.g., Menegatti & Rubini, 2013). This page was last edited on 17 April 2021, at 13:50. First of all, it is necessary to make people aware of how sexist language works and of the beneficial effects of the use of gender-fair expressions (Swim et al., 2004). Overall, the evidence reviewed here shows that “the choice of masculine words to perform generic functions had little to do with any linguistic superiority that these words might have relative to feminine or neuter words and a lot to do with the male dominance in society at large” (Ng, 2007, p. 117). They emerge when individuals freely describe men and women and when they are asked to evaluate the characteristics of individual men and women seen in photographs (Feingold, 1998). Early research on the effects of gender-fair language has been conducted by Bem and Bem (1973) who analyzed the wording of job advertisement. Boy's speech is characterised as 'competitive'. These judgments are part of formal documents that report the entire selection procedures and constitute the “rationale” upon which a final hiring decision is made. Although 20 years of research on the use of language abstraction in the intergroup context (for reviews, see Rubini, Menegatti, & Moscatelli, 2014; Wigboldus & Douglas, 2007), only recently Rubini and Menegatti (2014) have demonstrated that this linguistic property of interpersonal terms could be a powerful yet implicit tool for gender discrimination in personnel selection. Words consistent with gender stereotypes have powerful effects also when presented at a subliminal level, whereby they lead participants to classify gender pronouns more quickly into male and female categories (Banaji & Hardin, 1996). Given that the receivers make precisely the inferences intended by the LIB, this use of language abstraction is actually a means to maintain and transmit social stereotypes (Wigboldus, Semin, & Spears, 2000). More women are mentioned when gender-fair forms (e.g., word pairs such as “MusikerMASC/MusikerinnenFEM”/“SportlerMASC/SportlerinnenFEM”) are used instead of masculine forms, especially in male-dominated fields, where women constituted the minority. The double-sided effects of the use of gender-fair language have been specifically examined by Horvath, Merkel, Maass, and Sczesny (2016) who measured women’s visibility as well as their status perception and salary estimates. Furthermore, this tendency was enhanced for rejected applicants, such that rejected women were described more unfavorably than rejected men. The studies were conducted in Italy, where written judgments are part of formal records that comprise marks for each school subject and overall feedback on students’ global learning achievements that are collectively written by the teachers of each class. For instance, two applicants for an academic job positions with the very same CV can be evaluated saying that “the candidate did not write enough papers” or that “the candidate was not an innovative researcher.” These two statements convey the similar content that applicant’s publications are not enough to be suitable for the position. For instance, housewives are seen as warm, but not competent, and yield to paternalist prejudice that in turn elicits condescending affection. Women were evaluated with greater proportions of negative ADJs (e.g., “She is not an innovative researcher”) independently of whether they were or were not selected for the position. The content of gender stereotypes, according to which women should display communal/warmth traits and men should display agentic/competence traits, is reflected in the lexical choices of everyday communication. In languages with grammatical gender, it is common and accepted to use masculine nouns to refer to both men and women, or to persons whose gender is irrelevant or unknown. This is even more likely to occur when speakers refer to women in predominantly male, high-status professions, such as chirurgo (surgeon) or primo ministro (prime minister), which represent masculine forms used also when referring exclusively to women. In an experimental reconstruction of an original trial for murder, Hamilton, Hunter, and Stuart-Smith (1992) asked participants to decide whether the accused woman had acted in self-defense by using the generic pronouns he or the word pair he or she, or the word she. So, what are some gender-biased language examples? Biased workplace evaluations are caused by the mismatch between the communal stereotypes of women and desirable work roles (Heilman, 2001). Key Terms. Psychological research that has attempted to answer this question yielded complex and sometimes divergent evidence. Letters for male applicants also included more research-related adjectives, such as a reference to “his research,” “his ability,” or “his career,” whereas letters for female applicants included more reference to “her teaching,” or “her training.” Recently, Madera et al. . Thus, the favorable traits attributed to women may maintain their lower status and reinforce gender inequality. Interestingly, masculine linguistic forms may lead to assume more men than women to be in a professional group even for typical feminine professions, thus overriding the effects of gender stereotypes (for a review, see Braun, Sczesny, & Stahlberg, 2005). So gendered language is commonly understood as language that has a bias towards a particular sex or social gender. In English, this includes use of nouns that are not gender-specific to refer to roles or professions,[1] formation of phrases in a coequal manner, and discontinuing the blanket use of male terms. Modern research views gender as a social construct. According to the paper on debiasing, word embeddings tend to maintain the gender stereotypes that pervade language through gender bias, which can be magnified when applied in … Since modern societies explicitly and legally forbid gender inequality in job recruitment and career development, men seem to use language abstraction as an implicit means to maintain and reproduce their power (Reid & Ng, 1999) in academia by depicting women as less-deserving scientists than their male colleagues. Gender bias and sexism are embedded in the grammatical structure of most languages and therefore are perceived to be normative (see Hamilton, 1988; Ng, 2007; Stahlberg et al., 2007). . [19] Simultaneously, the link between language and ideologies (including traditional gender ideologies) was becoming apparent in the academic field of linguistics. Sociability refers to individuals’ ability to establish connections with others and indicates their style of engagement. This is an example of the gender bias that exists in the English language. .,” or “Compared to fathers, mothers are . [26] By 1995, academic institutions in Canada and Britain had implemented “non-sexist” language policies. Ambivalent sexists can reconcile the seemingly contradictory attitudes about women by directing hostility toward female professionals and benevolence toward homemakers (Glick & Fiske, 1996). It is well established that the category label used to refer to a particular group automatically activates the traits stereotypically associated with the group (Maass & Arcuri, 1996).

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